Analogies are cognitive processes that use alternate subjects to describe or represent a source topic. Typically, analogies are used to support a description of the source that may otherwise be too abstract to understand easily. Analogies can exist linguistically, visually, or in a multitude of other ways.

Analogies are commonly discussed in literature and writing, for example, a writer comparing a series of streetlights to lights in a night sky. Both are points of light. Each is only visible at night and invisible when morning approaches. They are usually above the observer’s head, and they light in a predictable pattern. They also both eventually burn out. Therefore, a reader may understand the reference. Analogies are used to make writing more appealing, adding color to a piece of work. They also help explain an abstract concept. William Shakespeare’s famous poem, “Sonnet 18” is an analogy comparing a woman to nature.

Neils Bohr’s model of the atom is an analogy that demonstrates the physical characteristics of an atom and its subatomic particles. His comparisons of the atom’s makeup and physics to the patterns of the solar system made his representation easier to grasp. Bohr took an unfamiliar concept, the structure of an atom, and compared it to something the audience knew, the solar system. If the nucleus was seen as the sun and orbiting electrons as planets, people were better able to grasp his concept. The model was a much simpler version of the atom’s actual physical properties but illustrated the complex concepts in an easy-to-understand manner.

Among the best analogies in the field of usability engineering is the desktop metaphor used for many computer operating systems (Hamilton, 2000). The introduction of the mouse and graphical user interface, or GUI, spared users from typing complicat¬ed and frequently long strings into a command prompt. Users would typically err when typing commands, resulting in more wasted time in retyping the string or worse, causing the computer to crash. The chance of error is much lower when a user clicks on a word or icon to perform an action. Most computer operations required a manual to perform the simplest tasks. Computers required an investment of time and training to understand the system, a tradeoff few were willing to accept. The mouse and the GUI improved interaction. This lowered the time needed for an operator to advance from novice to proficient, reducing the cost of writing, printing, distributing, and maintaining documentation. Users unfamiliar with computers had difficulty understanding their complex functionality. The desktop analogy helped simplify the processes by relating the abstract practice to a familiar concept. Using a metaphor to represent a task such as the computer screen mimicking a desktop in an office environment, adds a familiar mechanism to an unfamiliar situation, facilitating easier learning. Apple’s trashcan icon allows the deletion of a file by clicking and dragging the file to the can, just as an office worker would do to discard any paper. Sometimes metaphors mislead. The user performs the same action to eject a floppy disk, moving the disk icon to the trashcan. One would see this as deleting the floppy, when in fact it merely removes the floppy for later use (Hamilton, 2000). Few peculiarities may cause initial confusion. However, users acknowledge the ambiguity and shortly accustom themselves to the interface. Platforms still use the desktop metaphor with icons and windows displayed on the screen. Designers have since refined the interface to handle greater function¬ality and improve intuitiveness. The metaphor was a massive success that dramatically changed computing for the better. Xerox competitors adopted the concept and designed similar mouse-controlled GUIs in support of its function. As a result, computers became easier and quicker to learn and use, providing a richer, more fulfilling experience.

Visually, icons can be analogical. A blue icon could represent a low temperature, as could icicles or a thermometer with low mercury. An image of a giant could be used to represent a function that makes something bigger. A picture of a magic wand could symbolize a “wizard,” which, in software terms is a system that guides a user through a complex process with separate steps. Though these icons do not directly describe the process they represent, the designers expect viewers to associate the symbol with a certain procedure through analogy. This approach may work well for some viewers, but many may be confused depending on the analogy. Usually, the reference is chosen based on popular culture and experience. The associative process is complex, as it usually takes more than one step. For example, the user would need to identify the wand to be a magic wand, then associate that to a wizard, who, using recall, is then associated to the wizard computing tool. If any one of those references cannot be identified, the icon fails to do its intended job.

RARLAB's Detailed Icons: The standard toolbar in RARLAB’s WinRAR application (Roshal, 2008). Some buttons use analogical icons to communicate their functions to the user.

The standard toolbar in RARLAB’s WinRAR application (Roshal, 2008). Some buttons use analogical icons to communicate their functions to the user.

RARLAB’s WinRAR software application employs many analogical icons (Roshal, 2008). The images on buttons in this software are more detailed and colorful than most professional software icons as shows in Figure 13. This software uses icons such as a depiction of an actual wizard to reference the wizard tool. This is a very ambiguous image, as the wizard looks like a genie, gypsy, or other character. The attention immediately goes to what the character is holding (which is depicted as a zipped file), rather than the character himself. The developers place the word “wizard” underneath the icon for clarification, a last resort to convey icons which are doubtful in meaning. Still, those not familiar with the wizard approach to computing may be unclear about what the button does. Another icon in this program is a button that contains an image of a spray can with an insect on it. This is another analogy, as it represents a VirusScan function. A virus is the generic name given to any problem with a computer’s software. The virus scanner checks for these errors and usually repairs them. The virus is typically depicted as an insect, but many viruses are also referred to as “bugs,” referencing Grace Hopper’s encounter with a moth which caused problems in one of the first computers. The insect on the can represents this. The can is supposed to represent an aerosol-powered bottle of bug spray, which is used for killing insects. This complicated analogy depicts a bug on a spray can to represent VirusScan. Therefore, one must identify the can as a spray can that does a certain task. The viewer will see the bug on the can and understand that it means virus. Since the virus image is on the can, it must be a can of chemicals that kill viruses, and, by clicking the button, the software will search for mistakes in the files and repair them. Fortunately, the design incorporates the word “VirusScan” below the icon. These icons appear grossly unintuitive. Analogies are intended to make descriptions clearer. If used improperly, they may make an association more complicated.

Works Cited:

Hamilton, A. (2000, November). Metaphor in theory and practice: The influence of metaphors on expectations. ACM Journal of Computer Documentation, 24(4), 237-253. doi:10.1145/353927.353935

Roshal, A. (2008). WinRAR (Version 3.80) [Computer software]. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from http://www.rarlab.com

Innatists believe that people are born with an ability to understand and comprehend language (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p.15-17). The child begins with a template that describes how a language is supposed to flow. People later learn the details of language such as words, structures, and grammar. Noam Chomsky, renowned psychologist, challenged the behaviorist views with this theory, arguing that there is too much for a person to know to be able to piece together parts of languages just by listening to speech. This school of thought suggests that this language template is universal. Basically, all languages stem from this biological understanding.

In the English language, prefixes and suffixes can alter the meaning of a word. As previously mentioned, adding “re” or “un” to the beginning of certain verbs gives them a new meaning. Adding an “s” to certain nouns expresses the general quantity of the subject. Adding “s” to the end of the word “bird” changes the meaning from a single bird to more than one. Such concepts should be applied to icons to help improve guessability or the capability to estimate a picture’s meaning based on the knowledge of certain symbols added to or removed from the icon. An image may contain a picture of a pencil when it involves writing. The user may understand this symbol to mean to write or produce. However, if a set of symbols breaks this pattern, the symbols’ meanings become difficult to learn. Children learning the English language sometimes oversimplify, adding “s” to the word “goose” to represent more than one goose. The correct word is “geese,” but this is confusing because it breaks an expected pattern, thus hindering guessability. The word “gooses” would be an appropriate assumption based on the nature of the suffix “s,” but it is not the correct use in this case. Ruining the guessability pattern will also hamper user confidence, and the viewer may be less likely to assume a meaning for the next symbol presented.

One way to devise understandable symbols is to develop methods for consistency. Icons should have a set of agreed standards by which designers abide. Researchers are attempting to create a systematic approach to icon development (Dreyfuss, 1984/1972, pp.26-31). Symbols are a language of their own and represent objects and actions pictorially. Languages have several guidelines that give words clearer meanings. English uses phonemes and characters, most of which alone have no meaning. Such a system is the morphemic system of the English language. The speaker understands what these pieces of verbiage mean when attached to other words. Instead of having to learn the word “do,” “undo,” and “redo,” one need only understand the word “do.” The prefixes “un” as a form of negation and “re” to mean repetition have been previously established (Kucer, 2005, pp.35-38). This is how symbol developers create learnability within a library of pictures. Applying morphological awareness principles to a rudimentary iconographic library could form a reliable foundation for structuring other icons.

In languages, there are frequently inconsistencies in the rules. For example, adding “s” to the end of a noun usually changes it to plural. This does not apply to all words, for example the plural for deer is also deer. Some people learning the language will encounter difficulties when learning which words take on a plural form other than the typical appending of “s.” The silent “e” also causes problems. Some beginners add an ‘e’ at the end of many words when realizing that some words, like “take” and “make,” have a silent “e” (Kucer, 2005, p.264). This is commonly referred to as overgeneralization. This shows that people expect regularity in language. In order to avoid this inconsistency and confusion in icons, designers should recognize a set of uncompromising standards. As in language, some exceptions may be established when necessary.

All languages arrange characters in a sequence (Massironi, 1937/2002, pp. 62-64). Some languages are written to move left to right, right to left, or up to down. Each arrangement is readable without much effort. An experiment was conducted that involved changing the logical arrangement of letters in a word. Instead of the next letter in the word succeeding the previous, they were written in a spiral motion; the second letter would be written behind the first, the third at the beginning, the fourth at the end, and the pattern repeats until the end of the word. Therefore, the word “TOGETHER” would read as “RHEOTGTE.” Although all the letters exist in a decipherable pattern, the words are difficult to read for various reasons. The beginning of the word is difficult to spot because the first letter is hidden in the center. Another problem is that the reader must continually move left and right to read the word. The spaces also get gradually larger as they read more into the word, making it harder to locate the next letter, increasing reader fatigue. In regular text, the space between letters is consistent, therefore requiring the same cognitive resources to study each character. This obscure sequence also requires short-term memory, as the reader must strain to memorize all letters read over the time it takes to read the word and must remember which letter was read previously so he or she know his or her place in the word when looking at the opposite side.

The text arranged in this pattern is incomprehensible because it can no longer be recognized by the human cognitive system (Massironi, 1937/2002, pp. 62-64). This spiraling sequence violates two laws of fundamental psychology: proximity and continuity of direction. These rules are necessary to make decoding written information quick and effortless. The letters must be near each other and arranged in an easy-to-follow, continuous manner.

A difficult arrangement of letters also makes reading through occlusions harder (Massironi, 1937/2002, pp. 62-64). If part of a normal sentence was covered or had letters missing, human cognition may be able to compensate for the lack of information and decipher the word. If such an obstacle was added to a sentence using the spiral arrangement, it would be much harder to read. Basically, the spiral rule is difficult because it requires too great a cognitive load. If the reading process is more natural and requires less effort, the reader will have the means to read past the occlusion. The predictable flow of perceptual units allows the reader to focus more on the symbolic meaning of words without much visual cognitive effort.

In many languages, one word can have several meanings that change depending on the context (Massironi, 1937/2002, pp. 62-64). Usually they are separated into semantic and material groups. Saying “This is a glass of water” uses the object “water” as a noun. A similar sentence, “This water glass is full” uses “water” as an adjective to describe the glass. The word is the same but takes a different meaning because of context. The former refers to a physical object and the latter qualifies a particular type of object.

If one were to design an icon to express the action “Create Circle by Points on Diameter,” an artist can combine understood symbols to show the object, the action, and the method. The object is a picture of a circle. The action is “draw,” depicted by a pencil. The same pencil should appear in a different icon to represent the action “draw” also. There are several ways to form a circle in this program. The illustration shows two opposite points on the circle’s diameter to express the method “create circle by opposing points.” An illustration expressing “Create circle by center and edge point” will have the same object and action depiction, but the method would be represented by a dot in the center of the circle and another on the edge (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372).

This concept is widely accepted as an appropriate means to create language. Several languages worldwide use this sort of repetition in order to improve learnability and comprehensibility. It also saves one from having to memorize many different words and meanings. Languages such as German, Spanish, and Latin change the end of the word based on the gender of the object to which the word refers. American Sign Language repeats symbols in certain words to clarify context.

Certain symbols are used frequently and usually conjointly with other symbols to change meaning. The results can be prohibition marks (usually indicated by a diagonal line or “X” through the original symbol), restrictions (when the icon is within a circle), warnings (when the icon is inside a triangle), and directional symbols (usually indicated by arrows) (Dreyfuss, 1984/1972, pp. 26-28). This thesis will test these semantics in the experiments by including them within certain symbols. The original symbol (without the modifier) may be included as a control.

Combining icons is a common practice. A symbol of a bird, depicting all notable physical features that make it recognizable could have a different meaning if combined with another symbol (Dondis, 1973, p. 72). If the same silhouette were shown carrying an olive branch in its beak, it would represent peace. Since the dove is a bird frequently associated with peace, viewers may identify the generic bird shape as a dove. With the addition of a minute detail, the icon’s meaning changes.

One study investigated whether Taiwanese computer users could correctly identify English-created icons on a computer (Wang, 2007, pp. 199-202). The test investigated the variables of computer experience and knowledge of the English language and concluded that knowing English had little effect on the ability to correctly identify the icons. Computer experience was the main factor. Some of the icons such as “underline” (depicted as the letter U with a line underneath) used English characters. A study of English users with little computer experience showed that participants had more difficulty identifying icons with English characters on them than their more tech-savvy Taiwanese counterparts. Basically, language was not the primary factor in assessing one’s ability to correctly identify concrete or combination icons. Regardless, using specific characters can add a variable and bias the results.

Young viewers understand the concept of combining different icons to form one with a new meaning. An author describes an instance of how people interpret icons differently if used with other symbols. Children identified skull and crossbones as a pirate symbol. When a bottle was drawn around the figure, the same audience described it to mean “poison” (Dreyfuss, 1984/1972, p. 142). This symbol has been accepted to represent mortality since the 16th century (Miller, Brown, & Cullen, 2000, p. 49) and has been embedded in popular culture, keeping it exposed to the public in books, movies, and music. This icon has taken on the meaning of death and destruction in most of the world but still holds a promise of good fortune in Tibet and Nepal.

Researchers have examined the interpretability of icons across various cultures. One study tested cell phone icons with varying levels of detail among Americans and Koreans (Kim & Lee, 2005, pp. 307-310). The conclusion was that Koreans prefer more concrete icons, while Americans prefer abstract. This demonstrates detail preferences among certain cultures.

Works Cited:

Dondis, D. A. (1973). Primer of visual literacy (p. 72). Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Horton, W. (1994). The icon book: Visual symbols for computer systems and documentation (pp. 262, 245, 249, 260). Toronto: John Wiley & Sons.

Horton, W. (1996). Designing icons and visual symbols. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 371 – 372. doi:10.1145/257089.257378

Kim, J. H., & Lee, K. P. (2005). Cultural difference and mobile phone interface design: Icon recognition according to level of abstraction. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, 111, 307-310. doi:10.1145/1085777.1085841

Kucer, S. B. (2005). Dimensions of literacy (pp. 35-38, 264). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd ed.) (pp. 15-17). New York: Oxford University Press.

Dreyfuss, H. (1972). Symbol sourcebook (pp. 26-31, 48-53, 80-85, 98-99, 140, 208-209). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Original work published 1984.)

Massironi, M. (2002). The psychology of graphic images: Seeing, drawing, communicating (N. Bruno, Trans., pp. 62-64, 71-77, 141-177, 196-211, 216-221, 223-235, 260-264). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Welbaum Associates. (Original work published 1937)

Miller, A. R., Brown, J. M., & Cullen, C. D. (2000). Global graphics: Symbols (p. 49). Gloucester, Massachusetts: Rockport.

Wang, H. F. (2007). Are icons used in existing computer interfaces obstacles to Taiwanese computer users? ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, 250, 199-202. doi:10.1145/1362550.1362590

Icons are intended to be unambiguous. Following a set of guidelines can help ensure that icons are designed in an interpretable manner. Icons should be understandable, explicit, informative, distinct, memorable, coherent, familiar, legible, few, compact, attractive, and extensible (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372).

Horton developed a checklist based on his philosophy (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). It is a tool for designers to ensure that their icons are designed properly.

Understandability is a measure of one’s capacity to make sense of an abstract figure. Icons are visual representations, and this indicates how well a viewer can interpret the message (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). If an image is accompanied by a label, it, too, will need to be clear.

Unambiguous icons typically demonstrate only one concept, and each concept should only be associated with one image (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). He proposes using additional signs or symbols on icons to clarify any remaining uncertainty of the icon’s meaning. An explicit icon is unmistakably clear and understandable. It may have emphasized features or contain certain elements that would make the image more identifiable.

Informative icons illustrate their function. The action or motive the icon represents should be entirely clear so the viewer is not taken by surprise (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). The icon should serve some importance. If it is in with a group of others, it should be distinguished in some way. If it is a button on a software program or a symbol on a bathroom door, the function should match the representation.

A distinct icon is identifiable and easy to differentiate when among other similar symbols (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). A symbol with an arrow may be unclear but if mixed in with a group of icons with the same arrow in different directions, the meaning may become clear. Sometimes the figures should have distinguishing features that make it unmistakable such as increasing the size of certain features or highlighting a particular part with a different color.

Memorability is significant in most cases. The better one can remember an icon and associate it with a meaning, the more understandable it is (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). The image should be vivid and, in some cases, associated with a label for further clarity.

Coherency is an issue with many icons. It should be obvious that an icon is its own symbol and not part of any other icon or part of an overall aesthetic design (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). The symbol should have a level of detail necessary to inspire the proper interpretation. Many icons are excessively detailed or far too caricatured to be understandable.

Familiarity is frequently practiced in icon design. An icon may represent a common object, such as a phone, and possibly serve a similar function to its realistic counterpart (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). Clicking a phone icon will probably open a communication program or display a phone number. However, people may be able to identify an old-fashioned rotary phone more easily than the silhouette of a modern cellular device, as the rotary phone has a distinct shape and most users are familiar with that technology.

Legibility makes an icon easier to view. If the shapes and lines are distinct and figure contrasts with ground, the icon will be much easier to see (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). Some icons will be seen in unusual conditions, such as if the monitor has a better or worse than usual resolution, environmental factors cause visual disturbances, or the viewer has a vision impairment or is too far or too close to the monitor to view it properly. Legibility accounts for these conditions, making the icon visible in virtually any setting.

The fewer icons used the better. All icons should be necessary and relevant to the task (Horton, 1996). Horton states that designers should use 20 or fewer icons per group, but the psychological rule of chunking suggests no more than nine groups. The meaning or function of all icons should be detailed in an external manual or guide (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372).

An icon is compact if every shape and detail in the image is necessary. All superfluous pixels, including borders, added details, and colors should be eliminated (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). Some icons are better represented by words. If the icon takes up more real estate or is too ambiguous, using words may be the best approach.

Attractiveness is important to the overall visual appeal of the system. The icon should be clear and crisp and match the format of the surrounding graphical details (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). It should obey a color scheme and share properties with the style such as fonts, rounded corners, or line thicknesses. The images should flow and seem like they belong in the space allotted.

An image’s extensibility will aid the icon’s versatility. If the image can be resized and still be recognized or changed to a black-and-white or more simplistic representation and still hold its original meaning, it is extensible (Horton, 1996, pp. 371-372). The flexibility of an image may also be an asset if it is used in other media or in multiple places. It may also serve other purposes in different disciplines.

Not on Horton’s checklist is a determinant for how long it takes the observer to interpret an image. Clear images should take a short time to identify or label. An image may be clear and obvious, but the user may stare at the icon for a while trying to decide between two definite terms. Comprehensible icons are instantly recognizable and interpretable.

Works Cited:

Horton, W. (1994). The icon book: Visual symbols for computer systems and documentation (pp. 262, 245, 249, 260). Toronto: John Wiley & Sons.

Horton, W. (1996). Designing icons and visual symbols. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 371 – 372. doi:10.1145/257089.257378

Lately, I’ve been posting substantial information on design and color, such as Color Psychology, Understanding and Interpreting Form, Principles of Graphic Design, and Elements of Graphic Design. To complement these postings, I decided to write a bit about how the science of color and how we perceive it. An understanding of light physics and the visual system will help broaden the understanding of the topic.

Light travels in transversal waves and is usually described by the wavelength and intensity. The wavelength, or the length between two consecutive crests or troughs, defines the perceived color or hue and is usually measured in hertz. A hertz is the measure of one cycle per second. The intensity, or amplitude, describes the distance from the median to either the crest or trough and is typically measured in decibels. Intensity is usually described as measurement of brightness. Light waves can be virtually any intensity and wavelength (Lindsay & Norman, 1977, pp. 56-82). The visible spectrum is a subregion of the electromagnetic spectrum (Malacara, 2002, pp. 1-17). Though the spectrum is comprised of waves of varying wavelengths, humans are only able to see the range between 380 and 740 nm. The color blue has a wavelength of about 430 to 500 nm, green about 520 to 565 nm, orange about 580 to 625 nm, and red between 625 and 740 nm. White is a combination of all colors in the visible spectrum, and black is the absence of all color and light energy. Newton discovered this after separating white sunlight with a triangular prism, separating the beam into a spectrum comprised of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, respectively.

The color wheel is a circular chart that organizes all hues of visible light. The map shows the relationships between colors and assists designers in choosing appropriate color combinations. The wheel in its simplest form will consist of the primary colors (red, blue, and yellow) and secondary colors (green, violet, and orange). It can grow to include tertiary colors, quaternary, or a blend of all colors. Some contain tints and shades, which are variations in the lightness and darkness of a hue. Most computer applications use a color wheel as a means for selecting a color, including a side bar for adjusting saturation and varying the strength of a hue. This model is ideal for demonstrating color combinations and selections and is used by artists and designers as a reference.

Additive and Subtractive Colors

Mixing colors creates new hues. There are two schemes for mixing colors: additive and subtractive.

Usually, children are taught the subtractive color scheme first. This describes the mixing of colors whose frequencies are subtracted using red, yellow, and blue as the primary colors (magenta, yellow, and cyan is a more sophisticated color model used in printing). When blue paint is spread on a canvas, it appears blue because white light strikes it, and all colors but blue are absorbed. The blue is reflected to the observer’s eye. If yellow paint is spread next to the blue, the yellow will reflect and the observer will see yellow. If the two paints mix, the colors reflected will be blue and yellow, which make green.

The subtractive color is dependent on which frequencies of light are absorbed, whereas additives are based on which frequencies are projected such as in mixing light. In the additive model, red, green, and blue are the primary colors. When lights merge, the frequencies are combined to create a color closer to white. For example, mixing red and green light makes yellow, as this falls between these frequencies on the visible spectrum. All primary colors together create white light, and the absence of light is black.

The Normal Trichromat

Human vision is capable of analyzing three color stimuli known as the trichromat (Jacobs, 1981, pp. 23-32). Thomas Young asserted that there are three types of nerve fibers in the eye, each responsible for a certain color stimulus. One nerve sees red, one green, and the other violet (Conway, 2002, pp. 3-6). With these three variables, humans are able to see the entire visible spectrum. Stimulating different combinations of nerves in the eye creates the perception of a wide range of colors.

Works Cited:

Conway, B. R. (2002). Neural mechanisms of color vision (pp. 1-6). Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic.

Jacobs, G. H. (1981). Comparative color vision (pp. 23-32). New York: Academic Press.

Lindsay, P. H., & Norman, D. A. (1977). Human information processing: An introduction to psychology (2nd ed., pp. 56-82, 113). New York: Academic Press.

Malacara, D. (2002). Color vision and colorimetry (pp. 1-17). Bellingham, Washington: Spie Press.

Color has a profound impact on art and perception. Many researchers have executed numerous experiments on color psychology in an attempt to develop an understanding of the phenomena of human perception. Results show that all people generally react similarly to colors, but culture is among one of the most significant variables.

Multiple studies have shown that colors evoke emotion. For the sake of relevance, this paper will only investigate the five that are used for this experiment: blue, red, green, orange, and black. When one characterizes a color, it can be labeled with subjective physical properties such as weight and temperature (Sharpe, 1975/1981, p. 8). It may seem like it is open to individual interpretation such as a poem but, strangely, many agree about the properties certain colors exhibit. Artists use both objective and subjective descriptions to label colors. Descriptors such as a tint, shade, and hue all relate to the quality of the color, but labeling a color as warm or soft refers to its interpretation.

Color Therapy and Human Response

For many years, chromotherapy, the practice of healing with light, was robust and respected. One of the most influential color therapists was Edwin D. Babbitt, who documented his theories for healing with the power of colored light. His work was often refuted by medical professionals, though some believed his skills were apt. Sidney L. Pressley was among the many who denied Babbitt’s credibility, stating that if color does have an impact on one’s physiology and mentality, it is subtle and unspecific. The practice entailed aiming specific wavelengths of light in particular places depending on the ailment (Birren, 1978, pp. 52-65). Some chromotherapists gave light energy prescriptions for numerous treatments. For example, the treatment of epilepsy involved shining blue light, the calming color, over the patient’s head, spine, and solar plexus. Therapists stimulated dormant kidneys using red or yellow. For tuberculosis, the cure was yellow and in some instances ruby, over the chest. The claim was that violet light destroys the bacillus in tuberculosis. Gastritis, nausea, and indigestion could be fixed with light depending on the condition. A soothing blue could cure inflammation, and green could calm the organs. It was also noted that ruby, a stimulating color, was beneficial for the stomach. Many were skeptical that these methods would cure what the chromotherapists claimed.

Chromotherapy has since lost its credence, but color psychologists have shown that certain wavelengths are able to evoke mental and physiological responses in humans. This has been measured using several testing methods, some conventional, others using avant-garde technology (Birren, 1978, pp. 13-25). The use of galvanized skin response technology to measure palmar conductance, electroencephalographs to monitor cortical activity, and polygraph tests, that measure many facets of physiological reactions to stimuli, all show that viewing colors causes reactions. An essential consideration for which many color experiments fail to account is that the psychological and physiological effects of color are temporary. Similar to the effects of alcohol or coffee, the body eventually returns to its normal state. The color red stimulates, but after constant exposure the body’s responses drop below normal, contrary to its initial effects. The effects of color are dependent on their relation to time.

Color Meanings and Representations

Cultures tend to have certain sets of beliefs about what they feel certain colors represent. The meaning of colors can vary across nations. Many countries herald certain colors on their national flags based on these beliefs. The purposes of each color in all cultures are far too numerous to note in even a condensed manner.

Everyone has ideas of what a color represents. Usually, the meaning of colors is unconscious, and sometimes it is a shared belief. Colors have the capabilities of invoking psychological responses such as emotion. Depending on a person’s background, culture, and knowledge, colors will have particular associations. Since this thesis involves black, white, blue, red, orange, and green, these colors will be discussed.

In modern America, the consensus is that red represents heat, fire, and blood (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). Red generally appears brilliant, intense, opaque, and dry. It has the impression of danger, passion, excitement, fervor, and activity. Subjectively, it can be seen as intense, raging, rapacious, and fierce. Red is dynamic and dominant (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). It causes excitement in living things, stimulating the growth of plants, accelerating development of simple animals, and increasing hormonal and sexual activity, and it has the ability to heal sunburn, inflammation, rheumatism, and other ailments. Research shows that it is also capable of changing pulse rate and blood pressure. Red creates excitement, increasing restlessness and nervous tension. Normally red light creates an ideal environment for incubating ideas and brainstorming, but will not improve one’s ability to follow through with the idea. Red typically causes one to overestimate time and makes objects seem heavier. Pure red is too vibrant and usually causes afterimage when seen under normal conditions. A rich red captures attention. Variations of red are universally pleasing, especially by extroverts. The effects of red have been used to treat depressive moods and turn one’s interpersonal attention to the surroundings. It has been documented that thieves target red cars more than any other color, and red cars are also more likely to be pulled over by police for speeding, as red is a high energy hue (Rousseau, 2008, pp. 14-16).

Orange stands for warmth, metal, and autumn (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). The color is bright, luminous, and glowing. It is seen as being jovial, energetic, lively, and forceful, and can be interpreted to represent hilarity, exuberance, and satiety. It is also a very alarming and attention-grabbing color used to create awareness. It is used on some warning signs, as it draws attention. Certain game hunters wear orange to stand out amongst the natural green and brown foliage so other hunters can see them. Orange has similar effects as red (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). Though many are not aesthetically fond of pure orange, variations of the color are very well received. Tints and shades of orange such as salmon, peach, and brown, are commonly used for building interiors. They are pleasant and calming, mellow, and more modern than red. On human skin, it has a cheerful and flattering appeal. The subtlety of the color makes it desirable in large quantities, exhibiting a livable charm.

Green is cool and natural and represents water (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). The clear, moist color is quieting, refreshing, peaceful, and nascent. Contrarily, it can have a subjective meaning of ghastliness, disease, terror, and guilt. Shades of green have varying effects (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). Yellow-green is typically considered a neutral color and has few psychological effects. Greens and blue-greens are relaxing, pacific, and reduce nervousness and muscular tension. This color is used to increase concentration and may create an ideal environment for sedentary tasks and meditation. Like peach colors, bluish-greens also lack primitive appeal and create an ideal color for a livable environment. Both colors complement each other. Blue-green is also the color of the average human complexion and is appealing to most as a background color. These colors, as well as tints of orange, work well together aesthetically. Green, because of its majestic soothing effects, is usually adopted to help people relax. Before appearing on television, many prepare in a green room (Rousseau, 2008, pp. 14-16). Many hospitals elect green as a common room color because it calms patients.

Similar to green, blue represents cold, sky, water, and ice (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). The transparent and wet color can also symbolize service. It is subduing, melancholic, contemplative, and sober but can also represent gloom, fearfulness, and furtiveness. Psychologically, blue opposes red (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). Blue has the complements for almost of all of red’s attributes. Blue seems to stunt plant growth as well as hinder hormonal and sexual activity and wound healing. Blue too can change the pulse rate and blood pressure in humans, but, antithetical to red, it lowers both. Time is typically underestimated and objects in blue light appear to have less weight. Blue is flexible enough to create desirable tones using tints and shades at varying levels of saturation. Though it is a preferred color for many and may be suitable for the interior design of homes, it is usually not successful in business settings such as offices, schools, and hospitals. Typically, blues are best left to small areas and not appointed as the dominant color in a setting. Pale blue is calming, but many report that it bothers the eyes. It also makes adjacent objects appear blurry. Blue is a very passive color and does not grab attention. Despite its shortcomings, many people worldwide adopt the color for its restful and easygoing appeal.

Black, perhaps the most powerful of all, represents special darkness and emptiness (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). It is a neutral color that is often associated with night, mourning, death, depression, ominousness, and godlessness. Contrarily, black can also show submission to god, as priests wear black robes (Rousseau, 2008, pp. 14-16). It is a color of authority. White is spatial, light, cool, and clean. It is the color of purity, youthfulness, normality, and brightness of spirit. White, black, and gray are neutral colors (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). White is considered to be a perfectly balanced color, as it is clear, natural, and a combination of all visible colors. It also symbolizes cleanliness and sterility, which is often why nurses and doctors wear it (Rousseau, 2008, pp. 14-16).

White, gray, and black are positive, passive, and negative respectively. All do not evoke emotion and lack psychotherapeutic capabilities, making white the ideal background and black the ideal figure control for this thesis.

Color in Icons

Color psychology is a factor in many disciplines. The fields of fine art and design are clear, but usually the person selecting color chooses the palette based on aesthetic preference not psychological reasoning. Signage companies, advertising agencies, and safety committees may consider cognitive psychology when making informed decisions. Since this study involves icons and symbols, studying the development of street signs may offer insight.

The modern American traffic light typically contains three horizontally aligned colored circles of red, yellow, and green (Castro & Horberry, 2004, pp. 77-78). The lit color instructs the driver to follow a certain set of rules. Though the details of the rules are taught in a driving class, the understanding of each color matches the respective instruction. Color is typically a secondary design feature in traffic signs. They support the overall impression of the sign. Most signs incorporate a graphic symbol or words written in a readable font (usually Helvetica or a variation thereof) as the primary means of communication. The color of the sign assists the presentation of the message. An investigation of color psychology is necessary to select the wisest color for each sign type.

A sign’s conspicuity is the degree to which a sign is noticeable (Castro & Horberry, 2004, p. 121). Numerous factors affect a sign’s conspicuity, including sign size, angle of observation, color, brightness and contrast, and dynamics. Factors of the observer such as alertness and search patterns, will also affect conspicuity. This is particularly important in older drivers, as it takes more time for an older driver to notice and respond to a sign than someone younger. Making a sign noticeable can make it stand out among clutter. Color is one of the major factors in signage and a significant part of attaining the proper conspicuity.

Sign color and shape are factors that convey the sign’s meaning (Castro & Horberry, 2004, pp. 42-46). Sets of uncompromising standards are regulated in the United States based on psychological research. Most other countries have adapted the same or similar sign construction mechanisms. The specificity of color is described by its chromaticity based on the CIE Chromaticity Diagram. Color on signs is used sparingly, as it takes precedence over white and also loses luminance. White has a luminance of 1.00. Using this as a guide, yellow is 0.95, green is 0.7, red is 0.1, blue is 0.05, and violet 0.0005. On signs, some may report certain colors to be brighter than others due to the reflectivity.

Signs, whether for traffic or labels on a product, contain certain colors based on psychological concepts. On roads, the typical color for informational signs such as streets and towns is green. It’s not alarming but does not recede into the background and become unnoticed. Usually the people reading street signs are looking for them. Drivers expect them to be a certain color so they are identifiable. Typically signs that are warnings or alerts are much more commanding of attention. They are typically a vibrant warm color, usually yellow, orange, or red, and stand out in almost any background. Imagine if a stop sign were green. Red symbolizes a warning, instructing the driver to stop. If the sign were green, a color calming and permissible, the driver may have conflicting opinions about the sign’s command. This would exhibit a situation where conflicting cues may delay responses or cause the observer to conclude incorrectly.

Color Preferences

The typical American classification is that blue is a boy’s color and pink is for girls. This is an example of a shared-color interpretation. For certain situations, one color can be favored over another. Though this may be fueled primarily by artistic preference and style choice, there are physiological and psychological reasons behind the favoring of certain colors.

Scientific investigations conclude that people may favor certain colors depending on the environment in which they are most familiar. Furthermore, these tests conclude that people fitting certain physical demographic profiles, such as eye, hair, and skin color, prefer certain hues (Birren, 1992, pp. 179-181). Personality profiles reflect a color preference as well, as introverts prefer blue and extroverts red. Brunettes and blondes prefer red and blue respectively. This is concluded to be the result of skylight and sunlight in certain regions of the world. Colder climates typically have higher skylight and less sunlight than warmer ones. Since people are constantly exposed to certain environmental lighting conditions, the eyes adjust accordingly. In environments with intense light, the eyes may adapt and develop red-sightedness. The eye may also develop strong pigmentation in the foveal region. This typically happens with brunettes such as Latinos, as they typically reside in light-intensive areas. They usually favor warm hues, a result of psychological accommodation to long wavelength light rays. Blondes, typically from Norway and Scandinavia regions, are usually green-sighted and favor cool colors like blue and green. They may have different foveal pigments than their red-sided counterparts. Therefore, people who live in well lit areas tend to prefer warm, bright, saturated colors. Those from areas where light is less abundant prefer cooler and softer hues.

Older people favor blue (Birren, 1992, pp. 179-181). The theory is that when a person ages, the fluid in the eye yellows. The lens of a child’s eye will absorb about 10 percent of blue light, whereas an older person would absorb about 85 percent.

Diet may also affect color preference (Birren, 1992, pp. 179-181). A study showed that Mexican children preferred colors of high discrimination such as blue, yellow, and red. When the diet was corrected to include more calcium, the children were able to appreciate more subtle differences between colors.

Works Cited:

Birren, F. (1978). Color & human response: Aspects of light and color bearing on the reactions of living things and the welfare of human beings (pp. 13-25, 52-65). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.

Birren, F. (1992). Color psychology and color therapy (pp. 142-144, 179-181, 181-183, 257-261). New York: First Carol Publishing Group.

Castro, C., & Horberry, T. (2004). The human factors of transport signs (pp. 19, 42-46, 77-78, 116-117, 121). New York: CRC Press.

Rousseau, L. (2008). Color. In D. Millman, The essential principles of graphic design (pp. 14-16). Cincinnati, Ohio: F+W Publications.

Sharpe, D. T. (1981). The psychology of color and design (p. 8). Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield Adams. (Original work published 1975)

Color has a profound impact on art and perception. Many researchers have executed numerous experiments on color psychology in an attempt to develop an understanding of the phenomena of human perception. Results show that all people generally react similarly to colors, but culture is among one of the most significant variables.

Multiple studies have shown that colors evoke emotion. For the sake of relevance, this paper will only investigate the five that are used for this experiment: blue, red, green, orange, and black. When one characterizes a color, it can be labeled with subjective physical properties such as weight and temperature (Sharpe, 1975/1981, p. 8). It may seem like it is open to individual interpretation such as a poem but, strangely, many agree about the properties certain colors exhibit. Artists use both objective and subjective descriptions to label colors. Descriptors such as a tint, shade, and hue all relate to the quality of the color, but labeling a color as warm or soft refers to its interpretation.

Color Therapy and Human Response

For many years, chromotherapy, the practice of healing with light, was robust and respected. One of the most influential color therapists was Edwin D. Babbitt, who documented his theories for healing with the power of colored light. His work was often refuted by medical professionals, though some believed his skills were apt. Sidney L. Pressley was among the many who denied Babbitt’s credibility, stating that if color does have an impact on one’s physiology and mentality, it is subtle and unspecific. The practice entailed aiming specific wavelengths of light in particular places depending on the ailment (Birren, 1978, pp. 52-65). Some chromotherapists gave light energy prescriptions for numerous treatments. For example, the treatment of epilepsy involved shining blue light, the calming color, over the patient’s head, spine, and solar plexus. Therapists stimulated dormant kidneys using red or yellow. For tuberculosis, the cure was yellow and in some instances ruby, over the chest. The claim was that violet light destroys the bacillus in tuberculosis. Gastritis, nausea, and indigestion could be fixed with light depending on the condition. A soothing blue could cure inflammation, and green could calm the organs. It was also noted that ruby, a stimulating color, was beneficial for the stomach. Many were skeptical that these methods would cure what the chromotherapists claimed.

Chromotherapy has since lost its credence, but color psychologists have shown that certain wavelengths are able to evoke mental and physiological responses in humans. This has been measured using several testing methods, some conventional, others using avant-garde technology (Birren, 1978, pp. 13-25). The use of galvanized skin response technology to measure palmar conductance, electroencephalographs to monitor cortical activity, and polygraph tests, that measure many facets of physiological reactions to stimuli, all show that viewing colors causes reactions. An essential consideration for which many color experiments fail to account is that the psychological and physiological effects of color are temporary. Similar to the effects of alcohol or coffee, the body eventually returns to its normal state. The color red stimulates, but after constant exposure the body’s responses drop below normal, contrary to its initial effects. The effects of color are dependent on their relation to time.

Color Meanings and Representations

Cultures tend to have certain sets of beliefs about what they feel certain colors represent. The meaning of colors can vary across nations. Many countries herald certain colors on their national flags based on these beliefs. The purposes of each color in all cultures are far too numerous to note in even a condensed manner.

Everyone has ideas of what a color represents. Usually, the meaning of colors is unconscious, and sometimes it is a shared belief. Colors have the capabilities of invoking psychological responses such as emotion. Depending on a person’s background, culture, and knowledge, colors will have particular associations. Since this thesis involves black, white, blue, red, orange, and green, these colors will be discussed.

In modern America, the consensus is that red represents heat, fire, and blood (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). Red generally appears brilliant, intense, opaque, and dry. It has the impression of danger, passion, excitement, fervor, and activity. Subjectively, it can be seen as intense, raging, rapacious, and fierce. Red is dynamic and dominant (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). It causes excitement in living things, stimulating the growth of plants, accelerating development of simple animals, and increasing hormonal and sexual activity, and it has the ability to heal sunburn, inflammation, rheumatism, and other ailments. Research shows that it is also capable of changing pulse rate and blood pressure. Red creates excitement, increasing restlessness and nervous tension. Normally red light creates an ideal environment for incubating ideas and brainstorming, but will not improve one’s ability to follow through with the idea. Red typically causes one to overestimate time and makes objects seem heavier. Pure red is too vibrant and usually causes afterimage when seen under normal conditions. A rich red captures attention. Variations of red are universally pleasing, especially by extroverts. The effects of red have been used to treat depressive moods and turn one’s interpersonal attention to the surroundings. It has been documented that thieves target red cars more than any other color, and red cars are also more likely to be pulled over by police for speeding, as red is a high energy hue (Rousseau, 2008, pp. 14-16).

Orange stands for warmth, metal, and autumn (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). The color is bright, luminous, and glowing. It is seen as being jovial, energetic, lively, and forceful, and can be interpreted to represent hilarity, exuberance, and satiety. It is also a very alarming and attention-grabbing color used to create awareness. It is used on some warning signs, as it draws attention. Certain game hunters wear orange to stand out amongst the natural green and brown foliage so other hunters can see them. Orange has similar effects as red (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). Though many are not aesthetically fond of pure orange, variations of the color are very well received. Tints and shades of orange such as salmon, peach, and brown, are commonly used for building interiors. They are pleasant and calming, mellow, and more modern than red. On human skin, it has a cheerful and flattering appeal. The subtlety of the color makes it desirable in large quantities, exhibiting a livable charm.

Green is cool and natural and represents water (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). The clear, moist color is quieting, refreshing, peaceful, and nascent. Contrarily, it can have a subjective meaning of ghastliness, disease, terror, and guilt. Shades of green have varying effects (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). Yellow-green is typically considered a neutral color and has few psychological effects. Greens and blue-greens are relaxing, pacific, and reduce nervousness and muscular tension. This color is used to increase concentration and may create an ideal environment for sedentary tasks and meditation. Like peach colors, bluish-greens also lack primitive appeal and create an ideal color for a livable environment. Both colors complement each other. Blue-green is also the color of the average human complexion and is appealing to most as a background color. These colors, as well as tints of orange, work well together aesthetically. Green, because of its majestic soothing effects, is usually adopted to help people relax. Before appearing on television, many prepare in a green room (Rousseau, 2008, pp. 14-16). Many hospitals elect green as a common room color because it calms patients.

Similar to green, blue represents cold, sky, water, and ice (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). The transparent and wet color can also symbolize service. It is subduing, melancholic, contemplative, and sober but can also represent gloom, fearfulness, and furtiveness. Psychologically, blue opposes red (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). Blue has the complements for almost of all of red’s attributes. Blue seems to stunt plant growth as well as hinder hormonal and sexual activity and wound healing. Blue too can change the pulse rate and blood pressure in humans, but, antithetical to red, it lowers both. Time is typically underestimated and objects in blue light appear to have less weight. Blue is flexible enough to create desirable tones using tints and shades at varying levels of saturation. Though it is a preferred color for many and may be suitable for the interior design of homes, it is usually not successful in business settings such as offices, schools, and hospitals. Typically, blues are best left to small areas and not appointed as the dominant color in a setting. Pale blue is calming, but many report that it bothers the eyes. It also makes adjacent objects appear blurry. Blue is a very passive color and does not grab attention. Despite its shortcomings, many people worldwide adopt the color for its restful and easygoing appeal.

Black, perhaps the most powerful of all, represents special darkness and emptiness (Birren, 1992, pp. 142-144). It is a neutral color that is often associated with night, mourning, death, depression, ominousness, and godlessness. Contrarily, black can also show submission to god, as priests wear black robes (Rousseau, 2008, pp. 14-16). It is a color of authority. White is spatial, light, cool, and clean. It is the color of purity, youthfulness, normality, and brightness of spirit. White, black, and gray are neutral colors (Birren, 1992, pp. 257-261). White is considered to be a perfectly balanced color, as it is clear, natural, and a combination of all visible colors. It also symbolizes cleanliness and sterility, which is often why nurses and doctors wear it (Rousseau, 2008, pp. 14-16).

White, gray, and black are positive, passive, and negative respectively. All do not evoke emotion and lack psychotherapeutic capabilities, making white the ideal background and black the ideal figure control for this thesis.

Color in Icons

Color psychology is a factor in many disciplines. The fields of fine art and design are clear, but usually the person selecting color chooses the palette based on aesthetic preference not psychological reasoning. Signage companies, advertising agencies, and safety committees may consider cognitive psychology when making informed decisions. Since this study involves icons and symbols, studying the development of street signs may offer insight.

The modern American traffic light typically contains three horizontally aligned colored circles of red, yellow, and green (Castro & Horberry, 2004, pp. 77-78). The lit color instructs the driver to follow a certain set of rules. Though the details of the rules are taught in a driving class, the understanding of each color matches the respective instruction. Color is typically a secondary design feature in traffic signs. They support the overall impression of the sign. Most signs incorporate a graphic symbol or words written in a readable font (usually Helvetica or a variation thereof) as the primary means of communication. The color of the sign assists the presentation of the message. An investigation of color psychology is necessary to select the wisest color for each sign type.

A sign’s conspicuity is the degree to which a sign is noticeable (Castro & Horberry, 2004, p. 121). Numerous factors affect a sign’s conspicuity, including sign size, angle of observation, color, brightness and contrast, and dynamics. Factors of the observer such as alertness and search patterns, will also affect conspicuity. This is particularly important in older drivers, as it takes more time for an older driver to notice and respond to a sign than someone younger. Making a sign noticeable can make it stand out among clutter. Color is one of the major factors in signage and a significant part of attaining the proper conspicuity.

Sign color and shape are factors that convey the sign’s meaning (Castro & Horberry, 2004, pp. 42-46). Sets of uncompromising standards are regulated in the United States based on psychological research. Most other countries have adapted the same or similar sign construction mechanisms. The specificity of color is described by its chromaticity based on the CIE Chromaticity Diagram. Color on signs is used sparingly, as it takes precedence over white and also loses luminance. White has a luminance of 1.00. Using this as a guide, yellow is 0.95, green is 0.7, red is 0.1, blue is 0.05, and violet 0.0005. On signs, some may report certain colors to be brighter than others due to the reflectivity.

Signs, whether for traffic or labels on a product, contain certain colors based on psychological concepts. On roads, the typical color for informational signs such as streets and towns is green. It’s not alarming but does not recede into the background and become unnoticed. Usually the people reading street signs are looking for them. Drivers expect them to be a certain color so they are identifiable. Typically signs that are warnings or alerts are much more commanding of attention. They are typically a vibrant warm color, usually yellow, orange, or red, and stand out in almost any background. Imagine if a stop sign were green. Red symbolizes a warning, instructing the driver to stop. If the sign were green, a color calming and permissible, the driver may have conflicting opinions about the sign’s command. This would exhibit a situation where conflicting cues may delay responses or cause the observer to conclude incorrectly.

Color Preferences

The typical American classification is that blue is a boy’s color and pink is for girls. This is an example of a shared-color interpretation. For certain situations, one color can be favored over another. Though this may be fueled primarily by artistic preference and style choice, there are physiological and psychological reasons behind the favoring of certain colors.

Scientific investigations conclude that people may favor certain colors depending on the environment in which they are most familiar. Furthermore, these tests conclude that people fitting certain physical demographic profiles, such as eye, hair, and skin color, prefer certain hues (Birren, 1992, pp. 179-181). Personality profiles reflect a color preference as well, as introverts prefer blue and extroverts red. Brunettes and blondes prefer red and blue respectively. This is concluded to be the result of skylight and sunlight in certain regions of the world. Colder climates typically have higher skylight and less sunlight than warmer ones. Since people are constantly exposed to certain environmental lighting conditions, the eyes adjust accordingly. In environments with intense light, the eyes may adapt and develop red-sightedness. The eye may also develop strong pigmentation in the foveal region. This typically happens with brunettes such as Latinos, as they typically reside in light-intensive areas. They usually favor warm hues, a result of psychological accommodation to long wavelength light rays. Blondes, typically from Norway and Scandinavia regions, are usually green-sighted and favor cool colors like blue and green. They may have different foveal pigments than their red-sided counterparts. Therefore, people who live in well lit areas tend to prefer warm, bright, saturated colors. Those from areas where light is less abundant prefer cooler and softer hues.

Older people favor blue (Birren, 1992, pp. 179-181). The theory is that when a person ages, the fluid in the eye yellows. The lens of a child’s eye will absorb about 10 percent of blue light, whereas an older person would absorb about 85 percent.

Diet may also affect color preference (Birren, 1992, pp. 179-181). A study showed that Mexican children preferred colors of high discrimination such as blue, yellow, and red. When the diet was corrected to include more calcium, the children were able to appreciate more subtle differences between colors.

Works Cited:

Birren, F. (1978). Color & human response: Aspects of light and color bearing on the reactions of living things and the welfare of human beings (pp. 13-25, 52-65). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.

Birren, F. (1992). Color psychology and color therapy (pp. 142-144, 179-181, 181-183, 257-261). New York: First Carol Publishing Group.

Castro, C., & Horberry, T. (2004). The human factors of transport signs (pp. 19, 42-46, 77-78, 116-117, 121). New York: CRC Press.

Rousseau, L. (2008). Color. In D. Millman, The essential principles of graphic design (pp. 14-16). Cincinnati, Ohio: F+W Publications.

Sharpe, D. T. (1981). The psychology of color and design (p. 8). Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield Adams. (Original work published 1975)

An understanding of gestalt (German for “shape”) is necessary if creating a meaningful and interpretable set of icons. Gestalt explores fundamental concepts of graphic development based on psychological research. The brain takes abstract designs and finds similarities among them. Gestalt principles explore this phenomenon using the concepts of similarity, continuity, closure, proximity, and the relationship between figure and ground. Similarity is the concept of finding unity in objects that look alike. A square amongst a crowd of triangles would stand out. Continuity controls where the eye moves across a static image and gives an idea of where it would move next. A picture of a bouncing ball in midair with motion lines would tell the viewer where it came from and where it is going. Closure uses the mind’s ability to create the whole from parts and piece together a series of shapes into something complete.  An artist does not have to draw every line on an image before the audience will recognize it (“The Gestalt Principles,” n.d.). The World Wildlife Fund logo depicts a panda using simple shapes that the mind interprets as a whole (World Wildlife Fund, 2006). Proximity unites elements that are close to one another and gives the impression that they have related properties. A website may contain two groups of similar looking buttons, but one set links to pages within the site and the other to external sources. The relationship between figure and ground shows that a shape can be identified either by the “black” or “white” components. A common example is a symmetrical picture of two black silhouettes facing each other on a white background. The viewer can either identify the black symmetrical faces or the white vase-shaped object. Exploring these psychological principles can help in designing the interface (“The Gestalt Principles,” n.d.).

Gestalt has a significant effect on how one perceives an image. The observer may see a shapeless figure but interpret it to have meaning based on the principles of visual cognitive science. The brain tries to make sense out of everything by piecing together information fragments into a whole. Therefore, when one looks at an icon, the brain interprets strokes of varying contrasts to represent a particular shape.

Go and Go-Moku: A game of Go in progress. A player would use a different perceptual model if playing a game of Go-Moku. What would your next move be if you were playing one game as opposed to the other? How would your conceptual models differ?

Sometimes gestalt is present in subjective organization patterns such as in games. Some board games like Go and Go-Moku require the user to develop perceptual models in order to play and interpret the game effectively, as illustrated in Figure 1. This model will vary depending on the rules for the game. Go and Go-Moku have a similar layout and style; they are played on the intersecting grids of a 19×19 board, and players alternate placing black and white stones on the vacant sections (“Go,” 2008). Despite their similarities, they are played quite differently. Go requires the players to surround each other’s pieces with their own to capture. Go-Moku requires players to place pieces on the board until one player forms a line of five with his or her own color. The games may look the same while playing, but the players perceive each game differently. Depending on the game, certain pieces become the focus and strategies change (Norman & Rumelhart, 1975, pp. 308-346).

Gestalt is a necessary factor in the ability to interpret the games. Proximity assists in identifying critical pieces. Plays made close to the area of focus are more noticeable than those at a distance. Continuity states that pieces in a line or organized pattern are easy to detect and remember. In both Go and Go-Moku, identifying contiguous pieces is critical. Similarity makes it possible to easily identify groups of similar pieces (Norman & Rumelhart, 1975, pp. 308-346). Noticing a group of white in Go may inspire the black player to want to surround the group. In Go-Moku, the black player would be wary of a large white group, as victory may be imminent.

The brain is capable of storing information regarding previously observed images. When one sees an object for a second time, the brain checks this bank of stored information and recalls an image that has similar properties (Edelman, 1999, pp. 1-10). An observer may view a drawing of a boat and recognize it by its distinct features: a hull, triangular sails, and maritime background. The observer may recall the same information if looking at a triangle atop a half ellipse. Since the shapes are similar, the brain makes the connection. This gives meaning to abstract images.

The brain may easily identify the image but not be able to recall what the image represents (Edelman, 1999, pp. 1-10). An example is the observer looking at a circle. There are many objects with a similar shape, and the observer usually will not draw a confident solution of what the circle represents. Even if the user is knowledgeable of the context (such as the beach), a circle can still represent a beach ball or the sun. The observer may seek other cues to identify the ambiguous shape. If the circle is above the person, it may be the sun. If the person is holding it, it may represent a beach ball.

Failure to properly recognize an image can cause ambiguity when interpreting its meaning. Joseph Jastrow’s 1899 image is a strange figure that looks like either a duck or a rabbit. Because the observer cannot confidently recognize the image, there is a failure to recall (Edelman, 1999, pp.1-10). The person knows what a duck and a rabbit look like yet cannot immediately distinguish which of the two the image represents.

Abstract Birds: Scribbles may not look like anything particular. If visual cues are added to the scribbles, they become recognizable figures. B contains the same scribbles as A, but one may recognize them as birds.

The visual cues in the duck and rabbit such as the eye, ear, bill, and direction of feathers or fur ultimately lead to the decision the observer makes about the graphic. In fact, visual cues can make sense out of the most abstract objects. If one makes a scribble on a sheet of paper, it may not look like anything apparent (Massironi, 1937/2002, pp. 216-221). However, if two visual cues—a small isosceles triangle and a circle of almost the same area—are positioned correctly on this scribble, it may take the shape of something familiar. As seen in Figure 2, the scribble seems to take the shape of a bird. If one is to observe image A, they may say it looks like nothing but a scribble. If viewing image B, they may say it looks like a bird, chicken, or something similar, just by recognizing the extra visual cues. This psychology is why viewers can usually make sense of abstract artwork such as works by Picasso.

Understanding a symbol is a conscious effort. When one sees an object such as a ball, it is interpreted as being more than just red and round. Piecing together these components and including some logical reasoning give the different stimuli and details meaning (Newton, 1995, pp. 91-96).

Works Cited

Edelman, S. (1999). The problem of representation. In Representation and recognition in vision (pp. 1-10). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

The gestalt principles. (n.d.). Spokane Falls Community College. Retrieved July, 2008, from http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm

Go. (2008). In The Columbia encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/8272798/

Massironi, M. (2002). The psychology of graphic images: Seeing, drawing, communicating (N. Bruno, Trans., pp. 62-64, 71-77, 141-177, 196-211, 216-221, 223-235, 260-264). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Welbaum Associates. (Original work published 1937)

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While the elements of graphic design typically refer to the primitive structures of form, principles hold more philosophical and subjective concepts. Elements are easier to measure and have a more objective meaning and interpretation. The principles of graphic design are emphasis, balance, harmony, variety, movement, rhythm, proportion, and unity.

Emphasis

Emphasis is the concept of drawing attention or attracting the eye. In a composition, this can occur in a multitude of ways. Figure size, shape, color, texture, or placement can draw the viewer’s attention. Artists can change the color or texture in order to create emphasis. Adding more detail to certain parts of a picture forces the viewer to observe these sections for a longer duration than the rest of the piece. Another strategy is to reduce emphasis on certain regions to move the viewer’s attention to other areas. Drawing faceless characters or using simple shapes are ways to decrease detail and focus attention on other areas (Massironi, 1937/2002, pp. 71-77). An artist caricaturizes certain icons or symbols to emphasize attributes. To illustrate loudness or sound, an image of a horn may contain a larger mouth. A car may be drawn at a slant to indicate speed. A button in a series may have a different color from the rest to attract attention.

Balance

Balance is the concept of maintaining an equal feel throughout the piece and is usually accomplished through symmetry (Martinez & Block, 1988, pp.18-19). One side of an image may have similar qualities to the other. Balance does not necessarily need symmetry. Balance is usually achieved when the canvas appears to have equal “weight.” This can be based on any property, especially size, color, shape, position, value, and texture. Using similar shapes throughout or in a predictable pattern may help attain this property. Having a light- colored piece at the top and bottom, or a large, mildly light piece at the top and small, very light piece at the bottom, can establish a balanced image. This is not a rule in art, as unbalanced images can be just as attractive and desirable as balanced images. Regardless, this is a very profound and useful concept in the design of visual symbols.

Harmony

A harmonious image appears to have a similar look and feel throughout. Harmony is the idea of using a predictable pattern or giving a simplistic look to an image. No part of the image stands out above the other. A harmonious picture has little-to-no emphasis and a high sense of balance. A chess board and most wallpaper are examples of harmonious design.

All visuals have a certain feel, whether happy, sad, confusing, ordered, heavy, or light (Martinez & Block, 1988, pp.16-17). This medley of visual forces is typically referred to as harmony. Similarly, this term is used in music and describes how notes played together have a certain sound and feel. Like notes, groups of artistic elements work well together. Combinations of arranged shapes, colors, patterns, and properties give a feeling of completeness to the work, expressing a certain quality and character.

Variety and Unity

Though antonymic, unity and variety function together. Unity refers to the completeness of an image and the appearance that it is a whole. This is particularly important in icon development. Many icon designs are developed in a way so that one icon looks like two. Conversely, there are many instances where two separate icons appear as one. To avoid such confusion, icon designers may put a box around the graphic, use a line as a break, or bevel the area in which each icon is supposed to exist. Variety is a measure of difference throughout the visual piece. Using a variation of shapes, color, textures, and style can give the image more variety.

Unity is the measure of repetition and order, and variety is a lack thereof, incorporating more asymmetry and disorder (Martinez & Block, 1988, pp.10-41). It is not a rule that a picture must follow either principle. Most compositions are a combination of both. Typically symmetrical images have more unity, as they follow a predictable set of guidelines. Contrarily, asymmetrical images have variety. Unified images are typically made from straight shapes and lines.

Clarity and ambiguity can change depending on the amount of unity and variety in a picture (Martinez & Block, 1988, pp.10-41). Regular shapes seem to have order and predictability, but irregular shapes usually do not. The brain tries to deduce what an image is trying to represent. If a square had an edge that was slightly skewed, the viewer may be confused trying to decide whether it was a square or a trapezoid. This type of visual is different from the clear application of tension. This is described as ambiguity, and the process by which the brain tries to decipher the image is called leveling and sharpening.

Movement

Movement guides the eye throughout the image and can express movement and action. This is probably the most profound principle of design, as it is more of an interpretation than a mere observation. Movement exists because the viewer perceives the image to have such a property. Lines, fades, and the way an object is shaped can all express movement. Such expressions are used in comics where motion lines represent a change in position. Such properties are useful in icon development because symbols may need to illustrate movement in order to convey a certain message. Contrarily, some icons may be mistakenly interpreted to represent movement when the lines and shapes are meant to show something else.

Pictures can illustrate movement (Martinez & Block, 1988, pp.154-167). A person sitting or running can each appear to have movement of some sort even though the latter is more dynamic. A photograph of a jogger sprinting may or may not appear like the athlete is moving depending on the position. Movement in pictures is not a capturing of moving objects but a perceived sense of dynamics through shapes. Tension represents movement. The angle and stretch of a shape in an image can make it appear active. Changing the properties and elements such as thickness of a line, direction, color, shape, or the gradient can imply movement. Disorder and asymmetry appear to have more movement than ordered, rigid objects. Shapes that appear to align with a vertical and horizontal are seen as stagnant and secure. A graphical depiction of a windmill will traditionally have four blades arranged in a regular cross pattern. If the blades are aligned like a plus sign, the windmill will not seem like it is in motion. If the blades are arranged in the shape of an “X”, they will seem more dynamic, but the viewer will see an imaginary box connecting the ends of all blades that form a regular square. In order for the blades to appear as though they have movement, they should be at an obscure angle, somewhere between the plus and “X” patterns described earlier. Some icons also take a stroboscopic approach to motion, which shows an image changing over a distance similar to the common evolution picture. Movement is an important technique for a graphic artist to master in order to create visually sound symbols.

Many artists employ the method of showing a sequence to represent scientific events such as the lifecycle of a mosquito (Massironi, 1937/2002, pp. 196-197). Such drawings can illustrate a metamorphosis, revealing each stage in a lifecycle. Since each phase is significantly different from the others, one may not believe it is the same creature if seen separately. Mosquito larvae bear almost no resemblance to their mature counterparts. Arranging such a visual description in this manner shows the perplexing changes that the insect experiences to become what it is as an adult.

Cognitive drag is also a factor in interpreting sequences (Massironi, 1937/2002, pp. 198-204). This principle discusses the idea that the brain can see relations in objects in a pattern. If a circle were placed next to a square, they would seem to be two different shapes. If a circle were placed away from a square, with a group of images between them illustrating the shape of the circle gradually changing into the shape of the square, it would appear that one shape has turned into the other. The amount of change between each shape determines how it is interpreted. More intervals illustrate a richer, slower change that provides more information to the viewer.

This is, in a sense, a way of showing animation without time. Time is not an actual determinant of change but a perceived, subjective value. Viewers get an impression of a change over a period of time.

Rhythm

Rhythm is typically a property of movement. In an image, rhythm is a pattern. Usually it is a repetition of a certain shape, color, or other visual property. It can be a variation of lights and darks or a predictable assortment of texture.

In music, rhythm is a way of dividing and shaping the melody (Martinez & Block, 1988, pp.32-33). Rhythm relates to time in music and space in art. Usually, rhythm is seen in repetition or lack thereof. A missing dot may be difficult to miss in a random mess of one thousand others, but arranged in rows and columns, the missing dot will stand out. This is because the rhythm is broken. Repeating shapes, color patterns, or intervals can alter the rhythm of a piece.

Proportion

Proportion describes the size or scale of an object. Typically the proportion is subjective and is in relation to the image as a whole, other objects within the image, or other objects adjacent to the image. In icons, designers typically use a separate shape that remains a constant size to illustrate proportion among a library of icons. Such an instance is the illustration of a thermometer that has a darker shade inside the outline, showing various grades.

A proportional system designates the rules of scale (Martinez & Block, 1988, pp.38-40). The artist is allowed to vary objects according to these rules. If the guidelines are broken, a character could have a longer than normal arm or a building could be absurdly top heavy. Artistically, such variation is welcome, despite natural defiance. Designers could use such a principle to emphasize certain features or characteristics of an image, thereby making it easier to interpret and more memorable. Inappropriate use could also confuse the viewer; as such a distorted object may make identifying the symbol difficult. Though there is no one rule for constructing acceptable proportions, many cultures have devised their own paradigms. Greeks used a ratio called the Golden Section, where two lines (a larger and a smaller) are summed to equal an even longer line. These three measurements would then be used to form structures such as a statue, where the measurements would make up the torso and legs. Japanese rooms were modeled after Tatami mats that would serve as the floor. Each mat had 2:1 dimensions, so the longer side would be twice the length of the shorter. These mats could be arranged to construct rooms of various sizes as long as they abide by the measurements. The most common modern practice for determining proportion is a grid system or a series of imaginary guidelines that determine the underlying format for a construction. This system is flexible and versatile and allows for consistency and clarity if used properly.

Works Cited:

Martinez, B., & Block, J. (1988). Visual forces: An introduction to design. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Massironi, M. (2002). The psychology of graphic images: Seeing, drawing, communicating (N. Bruno, Trans., pp. 62-64, 71-77, 141-177, 196-211, 216-221, 223-235, 260-264). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Welbaum Associates. (Original work published 1937)